Glacier National Parkis an Americannational parklocated in northwesternMontana, on theCanada–United States border, adjacent to the Canadian provinces ofAlbertaandBritish Columbia. The park encompasses over 1 million acres (4,000 km2) and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of theRocky Mountains), over 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 differentspeciesof plants, and hundreds of species of animals. This vast pristineecosystemis the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem," a region of protected land encompassing 16,000 square miles (41,000 km2).[4]
The region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited byNative Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by theBlackfeetin the east and theFlatheadin the western regions. Under pressure, the Blackfeet ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government; it later became part of the park. Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11, 1910, a number of hotels and chalets were constructed by theGreat Northern Railway. These historic hotels and chalets are listed asNational Historic Landmarksand a total of 350 locations are on theNational Register of Historic Places. By 1932 work was completed on theGoing-to-the-Sun Road, later designated aNational Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, which provided greater accessibility for automobiles into the heart of the park.
Glacier National Park's mountains began forming170 millionyears ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up and over much younger rock strata. Known as theLewis Overthrust, these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest examples of early life fossils on Earth. The current shapes of theLewisandLivingstonmountain ranges and positioning and size of the lakes show the telltale evidence of massive glacial action, which carved U-shaped valleys and left behind moraines which impounded water, creating lakes. Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid-19th century during the lateLittle Ice Age, only 25 active glaciers remained by 2010.[5]Scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate patterns persist.[6]
Glacier National Park has almost all its original native plant and animal species. Large mammals such asgrizzly bears,moose, andmountain goats, as well as rare orendangered specieslikewolverinesandCanadian lynxes, inhabit the park. Hundreds of species of birds, more than a dozen fish species, and a few reptiles and amphibian species have been documented. The park has numerous ecosystems ranging fromprairietotundra. The easternmost forests ofwestern redcedarandhemlockgrow in the southwest portion of the park. Forest fires are common in the park. There has been a fire every year of the park's existence except 1964. 64 fires occurred in 1936, the most on record.[7][8]In 2003, six fires burned approximately 136,000 acres (550 km2), more than 13% of the park.[9]
According to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were theFlathead (Salish) and Kootenai,[13]Shoshone, andCheyenne. TheBlackfeetlived on the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as theGreat Plainsimmediately to the east.[14]The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the harsh winter winds of the plains, allowing them to supplement their traditional bison hunts with other game meat. Today, theBlackfeet Indian Reservationborders the park in the east, while theFlathead Indian Reservationis located west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the mountains of this area, especiallyChief Mountainand the region in the southeast atTwo Medicine, were considered the "Backbone of the World" and were frequented duringvision quests.[15]In 1895 Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet authorized the sale of the mountain area, some 800,000 acres (3,200 km2), to the U.S. government for$1.5 million, with the understanding that they would maintain usage rights to the land for hunting as long as the ceded stripe will bepublic land of the United States.[16]This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation.[17][18]
Far away in northwestern Montana, hidden from view by clustering mountain peaks, lies an unmapped corner—the Crown of the Continent.
While exploring theMarias Riverin 1806, theLewis and Clark Expeditioncame within 50 miles (80 km) of the area that is now the park.[20]A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area that later became the park. In 1885George Bird Grinnellhired the noted explorer (and later well-regarded author)James Willard Schultzto guide him on a hunting expedition into what would later become the park.[21]After several more trips to the region, Grinnell became so inspired by the scenery that he spent the next two decades working to establish a national park. In 1901 Grinnell wrote a description of the region in which he referred to it as the "Crown of the Continent." His efforts to protect the land make him the premier contributor to this cause.[22]A few years after Grinnell first visited,Henry L. Stimsonand two companions, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east face of Chief Mountain in 1892.[23]
In 1891 theGreat Northern Railwaycrossed the Continental Divide atMarias Pass5,213 feet (1,589 m), which is along the southern boundary of the park. In an effort to stimulate use of the railroad, the Great Northern soon advertised the splendors of the region to the public. The company lobbied theUnited States Congress. In 1897 the park was designated as a forest preserve.[24]Under the forest designation, mining was still allowed but was not commercially successful. Meanwhile, proponents of protecting the region kept up their efforts. In 1910, under the influence of theBoone and Crockett Club,[25]and spearheaded byGeorge Bird GrinnellandLouis W. Hill, president of therailroad, a bill was introduced into the U.S. Congress which designated the region a national park. This bill was signed into law by PresidentWilliam Howard Taftin 1910.[26]In 1910 Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club, whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside, caused the bill to be introduced into congress and awakened interest in it all over the country".[27]
From May until August 1910, the forest reserve supervisor, Fremont Nathan Haines, managed the park's resources as the first acting superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan was appointed the park's first superintendent. While the forest reserve designation confirmed the traditional usage rights of the Blackfeet, the enabling legislation of the national park does not mention the guarantees to the Native Americans. It is the position of the United States government that with the special designation as a National Park the mountains ceded their multi-purposepublic land statusand the former rights ceased to exist as the Court of Claims confirmed it in 1935. Some Blackfeet held that their traditional usage rights still existde jure. In the 1890s, armed standoffs were avoided narrowly several times.[28]
The Great Northern Railway, under the supervision of presidentLouis W. Hill, built a number of hotels andchaletsthroughout the park in the 1910s to promote tourism. These buildings, constructed and operated by a Great Northern subsidiary called theGlacier Park Company, were modeled on Swiss architecture as part of Hill's plan to portray Glacier as "America's Switzerland". Hill was especially interested in sponsoring artists to come to the park, building tourist lodges that displayed their work. His hotels in the park never made a profit but they attracted thousands of visitors who came via the Great Northern.[29]Vacationers commonly took pack trips on horseback between the lodges or utilized the seasonal stagecoach routes to gain access to theMany Glacierareas in the northeast.[30]
The chalets, built between 1910 and 1913, includedBelton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine,Sperry,Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also builtGlacier Park Lodge, adjacent to the park on its east side, and theMany Glacier Hotelon the east shore ofSwiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill personally selected the sites for all of these buildings, choosing each for their dramatic scenic backdrops and views. Another developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel onLake McDonaldin 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and it was later renamedLake McDonald Lodge.[31]Some of the chalets were in remote backcountry locations accessible only by trail. Today, only Sperry, Granite Park, and Belton Chalets are still in operation, while a building formerly belonging to Two Medicine Chalet is nowTwo Medicine Store.[32]The surviving chalet and hotel buildings within the park are now designated asNational Historic Landmarks.[33]In total, 350 buildings and structures within the park are listed on theNational Register of Historic Places, including ranger stations, backcountry patrol cabins, fire lookouts, and concession facilities.[34]In 2017, Sperry Chalet closed early for the season due to theSprague Firewhich subsequently burned the entire interior portions of the structure, leaving only the stone exterior standing. Due to damage, the chalet was closed indefinitely and while the exterior stonework was stabilized in the fall of 2017.[35]The rebuilding process was expected to last during the summers of 2018 and 2019,[36]and is scheduled to reopen in July 2020.[37]
After the park was well established and visitors began to rely more on automobiles, work was begun on the 53-mile (85 km) longGoing-to-the-Sun Road, completed in 1932. Also known simply as the Sun Road, the road bisects the park and is the only route that ventures deep into the park, going over the Continental Divide atLogan Pass, 6,646 feet (2,026 m) at the midway point. The Sun Road is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1985 was designated aNational Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.[38]Another route, along the southern boundary between the park andNational Forests, isUS Route 2, which crosses the Continental Divide at Marias Pass and connects the towns of West Glacier andEast Glacier.[39]
TheCivilian Conservation Corps(CCC), aNew Dealrelief agency for young men, played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing both Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park. CCC projects included reforestation, campground development, trail construction, fire hazard reduction, and fire-fighting work.[40]The increase in motor vehicle traffic through the park during the 1930s resulted in the construction of new concession facilities atSwiftcurrentandRising Sun, both designed for automobile-based tourism. These early auto camps are now also listed on the National Register.[32]
Glacier National Park is managed by theNational Park Service, with the park's headquarters in West Glacier, Montana. Visitation to Glacier National Park averaged about3.5 millionvisitors in 2019, which surpassed its 2017 peak of3.31 million.[41][42]Glacier has had at least 2 million annual visitors consistently since 2012, but has broken annual attendance records from 2014–2018.[43]Anyone entering the United States over land or waterway from Canada must have a passport with them.[failed verification][44]
Glacier National Park finished with a $13.803 million budget in 2016, with a planned budget of $13.777 million for 2017.[45]In anticipation of the 100th anniversary of the park in 2010, major reconstruction of the Going-to-the-Sun Road was completed. TheFederal Highway Administrationmanaged the reconstruction project in cooperation with the National Park Service.[46]Some rehabilitation of major structures such as visitor centers and historic hotels, as well as improvements in wastewater treatment facilities and campgrounds, are expected to be completed by the anniversary date.[47]The National Park Service is engaged in fishery studies for Lake McDonald to assess status and develop protection programs to enhance native fish populations.[48]The restoration of park trails, education and youth programs, park improvements and many community programs have been planned and are ongoing.[49]
The National Park Service mandate is to "... preserve and protect natural and cultural resources". TheOrganic Actof August 25, 1916 established the National Park Service as a federal agency. One major section of the Act has often been summarized as the "Mission", "... to promote and regulate the use of the ... national parks ... which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations."[50]In keeping with this mandate, hunting is illegal in the park, as aremining,logging, and the removal of natural or cultural resources. Additionally,oilandgas explorationand extraction are not permitted. These restrictions, however, caused a lot of conflict with the adjoining Blackfeet Indian Reservation. When they sold the land to the United States government, it was with the stipulation of being able to maintain their usage rights of the area, many of which (such as hunting) had come into conflict with these regulations.[16]
In 1974, awildernessstudy was submitted to Congress which identified 95% of the area of the park as qualifying for wilderness designation. Unlike a few other parks, Glacier National Park has yet to be protected as wilderness, but National Park Service policy requires that identified areas listed in the report be managed as wilderness until Congress renders a full decision.[34]Ninety-three percent of Glacier National Park is managed as wilderness, even though it has not been officially designated.[51]
Geological cross section of Glacier National Park (U.S.)
The park is bordered on the north by Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, and the Flathead Provincial Forest andAkamina-Kishinena Provincial Parkin British Columbia.[52]To the west, the north fork of theFlathead Riverforms the western boundary, while its middle fork is part of the southern boundary. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation provides most of the eastern boundary. TheLewis and Clarkand theFlathead National Forestsform the southern and western boundary.[53]The remoteBob Marshall Wilderness Complexis located in the two forests immediately to the south.[54]
The park contains over 700 lakes, but only 131 have been named as of 2016.[55]Lake McDonald on the western side of the park is the longest at 10 miles (16 km), the largest in area at 6,823 acres (27.61 km2),[failed verification]and the deepest at 464 feet (141 m). Numerous smaller lakes, known astarns, are located incirquesformed by glacial erosion. Some of these lakes, likeAvalanche LakeandCracker Lake, are colored an opaque turquoise by suspended glacialsilt, which also causes a number of streams to run milky white. Glacier National Park lakes remain cold year-round, with temperatures rarely above 50 °F (10 °C) at their surface.[55]Cold water lakes such as these support littleplanktongrowth, ensuring that the lake waters are remarkably clear. However, the lack of plankton lowers the rate of pollution filtration, so pollutants tend to linger longer. Consequently, the lakes are considered environmentalbellwethersas they can be quickly affected by even minor increases in pollutants.[56]
Two hundred waterfalls are scattered throughout the park. However, during drier times of the year, many of these are reduced to a trickle. The largest falls include those in theTwo Medicineregion, McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley, and Swiftcurrent Falls in theMany Glacierarea, which is easily observable and close to the Many Glacier Hotel. One of the tallest waterfalls isBird Woman Falls, which drops 492 feet (150 m) from a hanging valley beneath the north slope ofMount Oberlin.[57]
The rocks found in the park are primarilysedimentary rocksof theBelt Supergroup. They were deposited in shallow seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years ago. During the formation of theRocky Mountains170 million years ago, one region of rocks now known as the Lewis Overthrust was forced eastward 50 miles (80 km). Thisoverthrustwas several miles (kilometers) thick and hundreds of miles (kilometers) long.[58]This resulted in older rocks being displaced over newer ones, so the overlyingProterozoicrocks are between 1.4 and 1.5 billion years older thanCretaceousage rocks they now rest on.[58][59]
One of the most dramatic evidences of this overthrust is visible in the form of Chief Mountain, an isolated peak on the edge of the eastern boundary of the park rising 2,500 feet (800 m) above the Great Plains.[59][60]There are six mountains in the park over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in elevation, withMount Clevelandat 10,466 feet (3,190 m) being the tallest.[61]Appropriately namedTriple Divide Peaksends waters towards the Pacific Ocean,Hudson Bay, andGulf of Mexicowatersheds. This peak can effectively be considered to be the apex of the North American continent, although the mountain is only 8,020 feet (2,444 m) above sea level.[62]
The rocks in Glacier National Park are the best preserved Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in the world, with some of the world's most fruitful sources for records of early life. Sedimentary rocks of similar age located in other regions have been greatly altered by mountain building and other metamorphic changes; consequently, fossils are less common and more difficult to observe.[63]The rocks in the park preserve such features as millimeter-scale lamination, ripple marks, mud cracks, salt-crystal casts, raindrop impressions,oolites, and other sedimentary bedding characteristics. Six fossilized species ofstromatolites, early organisms consisting of primarily blue-greenalgae, have been documented and dated at about 1 billion years.[60]The discovery of theAppekunny Formation, a well-preserved rock stratum in the park, pushed back the established date for the origination of animal life a full billion years. This rock formation has bedding structures which are believed to be the remains of the earliest identifiedmetazoan(animal) life on Earth.[59]
Glacial retreat since the end of theLittle Ice Agein 1850
Glacier National Park is dominated by mountains which were carved into their present shapes by the huge glaciers of thelast ice age. These glaciers have largely disappeared over the last 12,000 years.[64]Evidence of widespread glacial action is found throughout the park in the form ofU-shaped valleys,cirques,arêtes, and large outflow lakes radiating like fingers from the base of the highest peaks.[6]Since the end of the ice ages, various warming and cooling trends have occurred. The last recent cooling trend was during the Little Ice Age, which took place approximately between 1550 and 1850.[65]During the Little Ice Age, the glaciers in the park expanded and advanced, although to nowhere near as great an extent as they had during the Ice Age.[64]
During the middle of the 20th century, examining the maps and photographs from the previous century provided clear evidence that the 150 glaciers known to have existed in the park a hundred years earlier had greatly retreated and disappeared altogether in many cases.[66]Repeat photography of the glaciers, such as the pictures taken ofGrinnell Glacierbetween 1938 and 2015 as shown, help to provide visual confirmation of the extent of glacier retreat.[67]
Grinnell Glacier over time
1938
1981
1998
2009
2015
In the 1980s, theU.S. Geological Surveybegan a more systematic study of the remaining glaciers, which has continued to the present day. By 2010, 37 glaciers remained, but only 25 of them were at least 25 acres (0.10 km2) in area and therefore still considered active.[5][66]Based on the warming trend of the early 2000s, scientists had estimated that the park's remaining glaciers would melt by 2020;[68]however, a later estimate stated that the glaciers may be gone by 2030.[6]Thisglacier retreatfollows a worldwide pattern that has accelerated even more since 1980. Without a major climatic change in which cooler and moister weather returns and persists, themass balance, which is the accumulation rate versus the ablation (melting) rate of glaciers, will continue to be negative and the glaciers have been projected to eventually disappear, leaving behind only barren rock.[69]
After the end of the Little Ice Age in 1850, the glaciers in the park retreated moderately until the 1910s. Between 1917 and 1941, the retreat rate accelerated and was as high as 330 feet (100 m) per year for some glaciers.[66]A slight cooling trend from the 1940s until 1979 helped to slow the rate of retreat and, in a few cases, even advanced the glaciers over ten meters. However, during the 1980s, the glaciers in the park began a steady period of loss of glacial ice, which continues as of 2010. In 1850, the glaciers in the region nearBlackfootandJackson Glacierscovered 5,337 acres (21.6 km2), but by 1979, the same region of the park had glacier ice covering only 1,828 acres (7.4 km2). Between 1850 and 1979, 73% of the glacial ice had melted away.[70]At the time the park was created, Jackson Glacier was part of Blackfoot Glacier, but the two have separated into individual glaciers since.[71]
The impact of glacier retreat on the park's ecosystems is not fully known, but plant and animal species that are dependent on cold water could suffer due to a loss of habitat. Reduced seasonal melting of glacial ice may also affect stream flow during the dry summer and fall seasons, reducing water table levels and increasing the risk of forest fires. The loss of glaciers will also reduce the aesthetic visual appeal that glaciers provide to visitors.[70][needs update]
TheBig Driftcovering the Going-to-the-Sun Road on March 23, 2006
As the park spans the Continental Divide, and has more than 7,000 feet (2,100 m) in elevation variance, many climates andmicroclimatesare found in the park. As with other alpine systems, average temperature usually drops as elevation increases.[72]The western side of the park, in the Pacific watershed, has a milder and wetter climate, due to its lower elevation. Precipitation is greatest during the winter and spring, averaging 2 to 3 inches (50 to 80 mm) per month. Snowfall can occur at any time of the year, even in the summer, and especially at higher altitudes. The winter can bring prolonged cold waves, especially on the eastern side of the Continental Divide, which has a higher elevation overall.[73]Snowfalls are significant over the course of the winter, with the largest accumulation occurring in the west. During the tourist season, daytime high temperatures average 60 to 70 °F (16 to 21 °C), and nighttime lows usually drop into the 40 °F (4 °C) range. Temperatures in the high country may be much cooler. In the lower western valleys, daytime highs in the summer may reach 90 °F (30 °C).[74]
Rapid temperature changes have been noted in the region. InBrowning, Montana, just east of the park in the Blackfeet Reservation, a world record temperature drop of 100 °F (56 °C) in only 24 hours occurred on the night of January 23–24, 1916, when thermometers plunged from 44 to −56 °F (7 to −49 °C).[75]
Glacier National Park has a highly regarded globalclimate changeresearch program. Based in West Glacier, with the main headquarters inBozeman, Montana, theU.S. Geological Surveyhas performed scientific research on specific climate change studies since 1992. In addition to the study of the retreating glaciers, research performed includes forest modeling studies in which fire ecology and habitat alterations are analyzed. Additionally, changes in alpine vegetation patterns are documented, watershed studies in which stream flow rates and temperatures are recorded frequently at fixed gauging stations, and atmospheric research in whichUV-Bradiation, ozone and other atmospheric gases are analyzed over time. The research compiled contributes to a broader understanding of climate changes in the park. The data collected, when compared to other facilities scattered around the world, help to correlate these climatic changes on a global scale.[76][77]
Glacier is considered to have excellent air and water quality. No major areas of dense human population exist anywhere near the region and industrial effects are minimized due to a scarcity of factories and other potential contributors of pollutants.[78]However, the sterile and cold lakes found throughout the park are easily contaminated by airborne pollutants that fall whenever it rains or snows, and some evidence of these pollutants has been found in park waters. Wildfires could also impact the quality of water. However, the pollution level is currently viewed as negligible, and the park lakes and waterways have a water quality rating of A-1, the highest rating given by the state of Montana.[79]
showClimate data for Glacier National Park, elev. 3,154 feet (961 m)
Beargrassis a tall flowering plant commonly found throughout the park.
Glacier is part of a large preservedecosystemcollectively known as the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem", all of which is primarily untouched wilderness of a pristine quality. Virtually all the plants and animals which existed at the time European explorers first entered the region are present in the park today.[82]
A total of over 1,132 plant species have been identified parkwide.[83]The predominantlyconiferousforest is home to various species of trees such as theEngelmann spruce,Douglas fir,subalpine fir,limber pineandwestern larch, which is adeciduousconifer, producing cones but losing its needles each fall.Cottonwoodandaspenare the more common deciduous trees and are found at lower elevations, usually along lakes and streams.[72]Thetimberlineon the eastern side of the park is almost 800 feet (244 m) lower than on the western side of the Continental Divide, due to exposure to the colder winds and weather of the Great Plains. West of the Continental Divide, the forest receives more moisture and is more protected from the winter, resulting in a more densely populated forest with taller trees. Above the forested valleys and mountain slopes,alpine tundraconditions prevail, with grasses and small plants eking out an existence in a region that enjoys as little as three months without snow cover.[84]Thirty species of plants are found only in the park and surrounding national forests.[83]Beargrass, a tall flowering plant, is commonly found near moisture sources, and is relatively widespread during July and August. Wildflowers such asmonkeyflower,glacier lily,fireweed,balsamrootandIndian paintbrushare also common.[85][86]
The forested sections fall into three major climatic zones. The west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir and the southwest byred cedarandhemlock; the areas east of the Continental Divide are a combination of mixed pine, spruce, fir and prairie zones. The cedar-hemlock groves along theLake McDonaldvalley are the easternmost examples of this Pacific climatic ecosystem.[87]
Whitebark pinecommunities have been heavily damaged due to the effects ofblister rust, a non native fungus. In Glacier and the surrounding region, 30% of the whitebark pine trees have died and over 70% of the remaining trees are currently infected. The whitebark pine provides a high fat pine cone seed, commonly known as the pine nut, that is a favorite food ofred squirrelsandClark's nutcracker. Bothgrizzliesandblack bearsare known to raid squirrel caches of pine nuts, one of the bears' favorite foods. Between 1930 and 1970, efforts to control the spread of blister rust were unsuccessful, and continued destruction of whitebark pines appears likely, with attendant negative impacts on dependent species.[88]
Virtually all the historically known plant and animal species, with the exception of thebisonand woodlandcaribou, are still present, providingbiologistswith an intact ecosystem for plant and animal research. Twothreatened speciesof mammals, the grizzly bear and thelynx,[note 1]are found in the park.[51]Although their numbers remain at historical levels, both are listed as threatened because in nearly every other region of the U.S. outside ofAlaska, they are either extremely rare or absent from their historical range. On average, one or two bear attacks on humans occur each year; since the creation of the park in 1910, there have been a total of 10 bear-related deaths.[92]The number of grizzlies and lynx in the park is not known for certain, but park biologists believed as of 2008[needs update]that there were just above 300 grizzlies in the park; a study which commenced in 2001 hopes to determine the number of lynx.[51][93]The exact population figures for grizzlies and the smallerblack bearare not known but biologists are using a variety of methods to try to determine an accurate population range.[94]Another study has indicated that thewolverine, another very rare mammal in the lower 48 states, also lives in the park.[95]Other mammals such as themountain goat(the official park symbol),bighorn sheep,moose,elk,mule deer,skunk,white-tailed deer,bobcat,coyote, andcougarare either plentiful or common.[96]Unlike inYellowstone National Park, which implemented awolfreintroduction program in the 1990s, it is believed that wolves recolonized Glacier National Park naturally during the 1980s.[97]Sixty-two species of mammals have been documented includingbadger,river otter,porcupine,mink,marten,fisher, two species ofmarmots, six species ofbats, and numerous other small mammals.[96]
Because of the colder climate,ectothermicreptiles are all but absent, with two species ofgarter snakeand thewestern painted turtlebeing the only three reptile species proven to exist.[100]Similarly, only six species ofamphibiansare documented, although those species exist in large numbers. After a forest fire in 2001, a few park roads were temporarily closed the following year to allow thousands ofwestern toadsto migrate to other areas.[101]
A total of 23 species of fish reside in park waters, and native game fish species found in the lakes and streams include thewestslope cutthroat trout,northern pike,mountain whitefish,kokanee salmonandArctic grayling. Glacier is also home to the threatenedbull trout, which is illegal to possess and must be returned to the water if caught inadvertently.[102]Introduction in previous decades oflake troutand other non-native fish species has greatly impacted some native fish populations, especially the bull trout and west slope cutthroat trout.[103]
Forest fireswere viewed for many decades as a threat to protected areas such as forests and parks. As a better understanding offire ecologydeveloped after the 1960s, forest fires were understood to be a natural part of the ecosystem. The earlier policies of suppression resulted in the accumulation of dead and decaying trees and plants, which would normally have been reduced had fires been allowed to burn. Many species of plants and animals actually need wildfires to help replenish the soil with nutrients and to open up areas that allow grasses and smaller plants to thrive.[104]Glacier National Park has a fire management plan which ensures that human-caused fires are generally suppressed. In the case of natural fires, the fire is monitored and suppression is dependent on the size and threat the fire may pose to human safety and structures.[105]
Increased population and the growth of suburban areas near parklands, has led to the development of what is known as Wildland Urban Interface Fire Management, in which the park cooperates with adjacent property owners in improving safety and fire awareness. This approach is common to many other protected areas. As part of this program, houses and structures near the park are designed to be more fire resistant. Dead and fallen trees are removed from near places of human habitation, reducing the available fuel load and the risk of a catastrophic fire, and advance warning systems are developed to help alert property owners and visitors about forest fire potentials during a given period of the year.[106]Glacier National Park has an average of 14 fires with 5,000 acres (20 km2) burnt each year.[107]In 2003, 136,000 acres (550 km2) burned in the park after a five-year drought and a summer season of almost no precipitation. This was the most area transformed by fire since the creation of the park in 1910.[108]
Glacier is distant from major cities. The closest airport is inKalispell, Montana, southwest of the park. Amtrak trains stop at East and West Glacier, andEssex. A fleet of restored 1930sWhite Motor Companycoaches, calledRed Jammers, offer tours on all the main roads in the park. The drivers of the buses are called "Jammers", due to the gear-jamming that formerly occurred during the vehicles' operation. The tour buses were rebuilt in 2001 by Ford Motor Company. The bodies were removed from their original chassis and built on modern Ford E-Series van chassis.[109]They were also converted to run onpropaneto lessen their environmental impact.[110][needs update]
Historic wooden tour boats, some dating back to the 1920s, operate on some of the larger lakes. Several of these boats have been in continuous seasonal operation at Glacier National Park since 1927 and carry up to 80 passengers.[111]Three of these decades-old boats were added to the National Register of Historic Places in January 2018.[112]
Climbers descend from the ridge of Dragon's Tail nearLogan Pass
Hiking is popular in the park. Over half of the visitors to the park report taking a hike on the park's nearly 700 miles (1,127 km) of trails.[113]110 miles (177 km) of theContinental Divide National Scenic Trailspans most of the distance of the park north to south, with a few alternative routes at lower elevations if high altitudepassesare closed due to snow. ThePacific Northwest National Scenic Trailcrosses the park on 52 miles (84 km) from east to west.[114]
Dogs are not permitted on any trails in the park due to the presence of bears and other large mammals. Dogs are permitted at front country campsites that can be accessed by a vehicle and along paved roads.[115]
Many day hikes can be taken in the park. Back-country camping is allowed at campsites along the trails. A permit is required and can be obtained from certain visitor centers or arranged for in advance. Much of Glacier's backcountry is usually inaccessible to hikers until early June due to accumulated snowpack and avalanche risk, and many trails at higher altitudes remain snow-packed until July.[116]Campgrounds that allow vehicle access are found throughout the park, most of which are near one of the larger lakes. The campgrounds atSt. Maryand at Apgar are open year-round, but conditions are primitive in the off-season, as the restroom facilities are closed and there is no running water. All campgrounds with vehicle access are usually open from mid-June until mid-September.[117]Guide and shuttle services are also available.[39]
The park attracts many climbers though the rock quality is old and loose in theLewis Overthrustfaultstructure. The seminal literature on climbing in the park,A Climber's Guide to Glacier National Park, was written byJ. Gordon Edwardsin 1961, with the latest edition published in 1995. The Glacier Mountaineers Society sponsors climbing in the park, issuing awards to those climbers who summit all 10,000 ft (3,000 m) peaks or all five technical peaks.[118]
Some of the finestfly fishingin North America can be found in the streams that flow through Glacier National Park. A permit is not required to fish in park waters. The threatened bull trout must be released immediately back to the water if caught; otherwise, the regulations on limits of catch per day are liberal.[119]
Winter recreation in Glacier is limited.Snowmobilingis illegal throughout the park.Cross-country skiingis permitted in the lower altitude valleys away from avalanche zones.[120]
^Harrison, Laura Soullière (2001)."Lake McDonald Lodge".Architecture in the Parks. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. RetrievedApril 13,2010.
^Jump up to:abDjuff, Ray (2001).View with a Room: Glacier's Historic Hotels and Chalets. Helena, Montana: Farcountry Press. p. 52.ISBN978-1-56037-170-0.
^Harrison, Laura Soullière (1986)."Great Northern Railway Buildings".Architecture in the Parks. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Archived fromthe originalon April 17, 2006. RetrievedApril 13,2010.
^Guthrie, C. W. (2006).Going-To-The-Sun Road: Glacier National Park's Highway to the Sky. Helena, Montana: Farcountry Press. p. 8.ISBN978-1-56037-335-3.
^Jump up to:ab"Getting Around".Glacier National Park (U.S. National Park Service). January 16, 2020. RetrievedJanuary 2,2021.
^Matthew A. Redinger, "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Development of Glacier and Yellowstone Parks, 1933–1942,"Pacific Northwest Forum,1991, Vol. 4 Issue 2, pp 3–17
^"Exposed Rocks within the Park".America's Volcanic Past: Montana. United States Geological Survey. June 11, 2003. Archived fromthe originalon June 19, 2010. RetrievedApril 24,2010.
^Jump up to:ab"Mammal Checklist".Mammals of Glacier National Park Field Checklist. National Park Service. December 21, 2006. Archived fromthe originalon May 10, 2010. RetrievedApril 18,2010.
^"Fish".Nature and Science. National Park Service. March 5, 2008. RetrievedApril 18,2010.
^"A Fire Ecosystem".Glacier National Park Wildland Fire Management. National Park Service. Archived fromthe originalon December 29, 2006. RetrievedApril 18,2010.
^"Wildland Urban Interface".Glacier National Park Wildland Fire Management. National Park Service. Archived fromthe originalon December 12, 2006. RetrievedApril 18,2010.
Dutiful Son: Louis W. Hill Sr. Book, Book about Louis W. Hill Sr., son and successor of empire builder James J. Hill and major force behind the establishment and development of Glacier National Park.
Bottomly-O'looney, Jennifer, and Deirdre Shaw. "Glacier National Park: People, a Playground, and a Park."Montana: The Magazine of Western History60#1 (2010): 42–55.
Harper, Andrew C. "Conceiving Nature: The Creation of Montana's Glacier National Park."Montana: The Magazine of Western History60#1 (2010): 3–24.
